Mari belajar....

Ape itu Chemical Equations??

A chemical equation describes what happens in a chemical reaction. The equation identifies the reactants (starting materials) and products (resulting substance), the formulas of the participants, the phases of the participants (solid, liquid, gas), and the amount of each substance. Balancing a chemical equation refers to establishing the mathematical relationship between the quantity of reactants and products. The quantities are expressed as grams or moles.
It takes practice to be able to write balanced equations. There are essentially three steps to the process:

1. Write the unbalanced equation.

o Chemical formulas of reactants are listed on the lefthand side of the equation.
o Products are listed on the righthand side of the equation.
o Reactants and products are separated by putting an arrow between them to show the direction of the reaction. Reactions at equilibrium will have arrows facing both directions.

2. Balance the equation.

o Apply the Law of Conservation of Mass to get the same number of atoms of every element on each side of the equation. Tip: Start by balancing an element that appears in only one reactant and product.
o Once one element is balanced, proceed to balance another, and another, until all elements are balanced.
o Balance chemical formulas by placing coefficients in front of them. Do not add subscripts, because this will change the formulas.

3. Indicate the states of matter of the reactants and products.
o Use (g) for gaseous substances.
o Use (s) for solids.
o Use (l) for liquids.
o Use (aq) for species in solution in water.
o Write the state of matter immediately following the formula of the substance it describes.

Worked Example Problem

Tin oxide is heated with hydrogen gas to form tin metal and water vapor. Write the balanced equation that describes this reaction.

1. Write the unbalanced equation.

SnO2 + H2 --> Sn + H2O

Refer to Table of Common Polyatomic Ions and Formulas of Ionic Compounds if you have trouble writing the chemical formulas of the products and reactants.

2. Balance the equation.
Look at the equation and see which elements are not balanced. In this case, there are two oxygen atoms on the lefthand side of the equation and only one on the righthand side. Correct this by putting a coefficient of 2 in front of water:

SnO2 + H2 --> Sn + 2 H2O

This puts the hydrogen atoms out of balance. Now there are two hydrogen atoms on the left and four hydrogen atoms on the right. To get four hydrogen atoms on the right, add a coefficient of 2 for the hydrogen gas. Remember, coefficients are multipliers, so if we write 2 H2O it denotes 2x2=4 hydrogen atoms and 2x1=2 oxygen atoms.

SnO2 + 2 H2 --> Sn + 2 H2O

The equation is now balanced. Be sure to double-check your math! Each side of the equation has 1 atom of Sn, 2 atoms of O, and 4 atoms of H.

3. Indicate the physical states of the reactants and products.
To do this, you need to be familiar with the properties of various compounds or you need to be told what the phases are for the chemicals in the reaction. Oxides are solids, hydrogen forms a diatomic gas, tin is a solid, and the term 'water vapor' indicates that water is in the gas phase:

SnO2(s) + 2 H2(g) --> Sn(s) + 2 H2O(g)

This is the balanced equation for the reaction.

Lagi contoh equation

Na + O2 → Na2O

In order for this equation to be balanced, there must be an equal amount of Na on the left hand side as on the right hand side. As it stands now, there is 1 Na on the left but 2 Na's on the right. This problem is solved by putting a 2 in front of the Na on the left hand side:

2Na + O2 → Na2O

In this there are 2 Na atoms on the left and 2 Na atoms on the right. In the next step the oxygen atoms are balanced as well. On the left hand side there are 2 O atoms and the right hand side only has one. This is still an unbalanced equation. To fix this a 2 is added in front of the Na2O on the right hand side. Now the equation reads:

2Na + O2 → 2Na2O

Notice that the 2 on the right hand side is "distributed" to both the Na2 and the O. Currently the left hand side of the equation has 2 Na atoms and 2 O atoms. The right hand side has 4 Na's total and 2 O's. Again, this is a problem, there must be an equal amount of each chemical on both sides. To fix this 2 more Na's are added on the left side. The equation will now look like this:

4Na + O2 → 2Na2O

This equation is a balanced equation because there is an equal number of atoms of each element on the left and right hand sides of the equation.

kena praktis selalu

Mahu tau lebih....

Sumber dari
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_equation#Balancing_chemical_equations
http://richardbowles.tripod.com/chemistry/balance.htm
http://www.about.com/

Pokok pun ade letrik?

Teringat lak aku pasal cite matrix, manusia diternak oleh computer untuk mendapatkan tenage letrik...


A group of researchers with team member Andreas Mershin, a postdoctoral associate at the CBE and Christopher Love, an MIT senior in chemistry, led by Shuguang Zhang, the associate director of the MIT's Center for Biomedical Engineering (CBE) from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) has managed to use the energy generated by trees to power a network of wireless sensors to prevent spreading forest fires. These sensors are powered by off-the-shelf batteries which is rechargeable by electricity generated by the trees.

Although the power generated by tree is small, it sufficient to produces enough electricity to enable four time signals emission a day from the system. This obviously a break through in power industrial where human being is still struggling with. It is believed the tree power may be adopted to be utilized in other wireless applications. Read more in "Using tree power to prevent forest fires?"

Sumbernya...

Kamus Operator 2

Ini term-term yang aku bace dari buku dan web untuk kite ingat kembali ..

PRECOMMISSIONING

Pre-commissioning activities are the non-operating work responsibilities such as adjustments, cold alignment checks, etc. performed by the contractor prior to ready for commissioning or mechanical completion.

READY FOR COMMISSIONING

Occurs when the plant or any part of the plant has been erected in accordance with drawings and specifications and the pre-commissioning activities have been completed to the extent necessary to permit commissioning activities to begin.

MECHANICAL COMPLETION

Occurs when the plant or any part of the plant has been erected in accordance with drawings, specifications and applicable codes and the pre-commissioning activities have been completed to the extent necessary to permit the client to accept the plant and begin commissioning activities. The terms ready for commissioning and mechanical completion are often synonymous.

WATER TRIALS

are commissioning activities conducted to allow run-in and operational testing of the equipment as well as provide operator training and familiarisation.

INITIAL START UP

Occurs when feedstocks are introduced to the plant for the express purpose of producing a product for the first time.

INITIAL OPERATIONS

used to describe the entire process of pre-commissioning, commissioning, initial start up, steady production and performance testing of a plant.

Hazop study

ini artikel dari entah sape punye yang bole kite baca,
aku jumpe mase tengah cari sumber...


A Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) study is a structured and systematic examination of a planned or existing process or operation in order to identify and evaluate problems that may represent risks to personnel or equipment, or prevent efficient operation.

The HAZOP technique was initially developed to analyze chemical process systems, but has later been extended to other types of systems and also to complex operations and to software systems.

The HAZOP study should preferably be carried out as early in the design phase as possible - to have influence on the design. On the other hand; to carry out a HAZOP we need a rather complete design. As a compromise, the HAZOP is usually carried out as a final check when the detailed design has been completed. A HAZOP study may also be conducted on an existing facility to identify modifications that should be implemented to reduce risk and operability problems.


A HAZOP is a qualitative technique based on guide-words and is carried out by a multi-disciplinary team (HAZOP team) during a set of meetings. HAZOP( Hazard and Operability Study) and What-If reviews are two of the most common petrochemical industry qualitative methods used to conduct process hazard analyses. Up to 80% of a company’s process hazard analyses may consist of HAZOP and What-If reviews with the remainder 20% from Checklist, Fault Tree Analysis, Event Tree, Failure Mode and Effects Analysis, etc. An experienced review team can use the analysis to generate possible deviations from design, construction, modification, and operating intent that define potential consequences. These consequences can then be prevented or mitigated by the application of the appropriate safeguards.

HAZOP studies may also be used more extensively, including:

• At the initial concept stage when design drawings are available.
• When the final piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&ID) are available.
• During construction and installation to ensure that recommendations are implemented
• During commissioning
• During operation to ensure that plant emergency and operating procedures are regularly reviewed and updated as required

A HAZOP or What-If report is a living document for a facility. As changes are made to a facility or its procedures the HAZOP or What-If review(s) will be updated to represent the current facility. Process hazard analysis reviews are also required to be updated and revalidated every five years as a minimum by U.S. regulations (OSHA and EPA).

Types of HAZOP

• Process HAZOP
  HAZOP technique was originally developed to assess plants and process systems
• Human HAZOP
  A “family” of specialized HAZOPs. More focused on human errors than technical failures
• Procedure HAZOP
  Review of procedures or operational sequences Sometimes denoted SAFOP - SAFe Operation Study
• Software HAZOP
  Identification of possible errors in the development of software

HAZOP Team Members

HAZOP team leader Responsibilities:

• Define the scope for the analysis
• Select HAZOP team members
• Plan and prepare the study
• Chair the HAZOP meetings
• Trigger the discussion using guide-words and parameters
• Follow up progress according to schedule/agenda
• Ensure completeness of the analysis
• The team leader should be independent (i.e., no responsibility for the process and/or the performance of operations)

HAZOP secretary/Scribe Responsibilities:

• Prepare HAZOP worksheets
• Record the discussion in the HAZOP meetings
• Prepare draft report(s)

HAZOP team members

The basic team for a process plant will be:

• Project engineer
• Commissioning manager
• Process engineer
• Instrument/electrical engineer
• Safety engineer

Depending on the actual process the team may be enhanced by:

• Operating team leader
• Maintenance engineer
• Suppliers representative
• Other specialists as appropriate

HAZOP Meetings:

Proposed agenda:
1. Introduction and presentation of participants
2. Overall presentation of the system/operation to be analyzed
3. Description of the HAZOP approach
4. Presentation of the first node or logical part of the operation
5. Analyze the first node/part using the guide-words and
parameters
6. Continue presentation and analysis (steps 4 and 5)
7. Coarse summary of findings
Focus should be on potential hazards as well as potential
operational problems
Each session of the HAZOP meeting should not exceed two hours.

The findings are recorded during the meeting(s) using a HAZOP work-sheet, either by filling in paper copies, or by using a computer connected to a projector (recommended).

The HAZOP work-sheets may be different depending on the scope of the study - generally the following entries (columns) are included:
1. Ref. no.
2. Guide-word
3. Deviation
4. Possible causes
5. Consequences
6. Safeguards
7. Actions required (or, recommendations)
8. Actions allocated to (follow-up responsibility)

Data Required for a HAZOP Study

As a basis for the HAZOP study the following information should
be available:

• Process flow diagrams
• Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs)
• Layout diagrams
• Material safety data sheets
• Provisional operating instructions
• Heat and material balances
• Equipment data sheets Start-up and emergency shut-down procedures

HAZOP Procedure

1.Divide the system into sections (i.e., reactor, storage)
2. Choose a study node (i.e., line, vessel, pump, operating instruction)
3. Describe the design intent
4. Select a process parameter
5. Apply a guide-word
6. Determine cause(s)
7. Evaluate consequences/problems
8. Recommend action: What? When? Who?
9. Record information
10. Repeat procedure (from step 2)

Illustration of the HAZOP Procedure

The following modes of plant operation should be considered for
each node:

• Normal operation
• Reduced throughput operation
• Routine start-up
• Routine shutdown
• Emergency shutdown
• Commissioning
• Special operating modes

Process HAZOP Worksheet
Worksheet Entries

Node
A node is a specific location in the process in which (the deviations of) the design/process intent are evaluated.

Examples might be: separators, heat exchangers, scrubbers, pumps, compressors, and interconnecting pipes with equipment.

Design Intent
The design intent is a description of how the process is expected to behave at the node; this is qualitatively described as an activity (e.g., feed, reaction, sedimentation) and/or
quantitatively in the process parameters, like temperature, flow rate, pressure, composition, etc.

Deviation
A deviation is a way in which the process conditions may depart from their design/process intent.

Parameter
The relevant parameter for the condition(s) of the process (e.g. pressure, temperature, composition).

Guideword
A short word to create the imagination of a deviation of the design/process intent. The most commonly used set of guide-words is: no, more, less, as well as, part of, other than,
and reverse. In addition, guidewords like too early, too late, instead of, are used; the latter mainly for batch-like processes.

The guidewords are applied, in turn, to all the parameters, inorder to identify unexpected and yet credible deviations from the design/process intent.

Guide-word + Parameter = Deviation

Cause
The reason(s) why the deviation could occur. Several causes may be identified for one deviation. It is often recommended to start with the causes that may result in the worst possible
consequence.

Consequence
The results of the deviation, in case it occurs. Consequences may both comprise process hazards and operability problems, like plant shut-down or reduced quality of the product.
Several consequences may follow from one cause and, in turn, one consequence can have several causes.

Safeguard

Facilities that help to reduce the occurrence frequency of the deviation or to mitigate its consequences. There are, in principle, five types of safeguards that:
1. Identify the deviation (e.g., detectors and alarms, and human operator detection)
2. Compensate for the deviation (e.g., an automatic control system that reduces the feed to a vessel in case of overfilling it. These are usually an integrated part of the process control)
3. Prevent the deviation from occurring (e.g., an inert gas blancket in storages of flammable substances)
4. Prevent further escalation of the deviation (e.g., by (total) trip of the activity. These facilities are often interlocked with several units in the process, often controlled by computers)
5. Relieve the process from the hazardous deviation (e.g., pressure safety valves (PSV) and vent systems)

Process parameters may generally be classified into the following groups:

• Physical parameters related to input medium properties
• Physical parameters related to input medium conditions
• Physical parameters related to system dynamics
• Non-physical tangible parameters related to batch type processes
• Parameters related to system operations

These parameters are not necessarily used in conjunction with guide-words:

• Instrumentation
• Relief
• Start-up / shutdown
• Maintenance
• Safety / contingency
• Sampling

Some Parameters:
Flow, Composition, pH,Pressure, Addition, Sequence,Temperature, Separation, Signal,Mixing, Time, Start/stop,Stirring, Phase, Operate,Transfer, Speed, Maintain,Level, Particle size, Services,Viscosity, Measure, Communication,Reaction Control


Basic HAZOP Study Guidewords:

linknya

Open Project

http://openproj.org/

download disini

Ini free software macam microsoft project,
ade dua Openproj dan project on demand ( yang ni kena bayor k)

untuk running, ia memerlukan java environment

so pastikan java ade baru start...k...

Kamus Operator

Kekadang kite keje mesti lupe pasal term-term ini so aku post le bende allah ini untuk kengkawan semua dan untuk aku sendiri gak...senang nak refer nanti..manelah tau kan..

Benda2 ni semua kenkawan bole cari kat wiki atau kat blog2 untuk tau lebih detail..k...



ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
Pressure measured with respect to zero pressure, as distinct from pressure measured with respect to some standard pressure such as atmospheric pressure. Thus, 2 Bar gauge (i.e. atmospheric) is equivalent to 3 Bar absolute. (Atmospheric pressure being 1 bar absolute).

ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE
A temperature at which zero is a condition absolutely free of heat and equivalent to -459°F or –273°C. To convert temperature on Fahrenheit or centigrade scales to degrees absolute, add 459 or 273 respectively.

ABSORPTION PROCESS
A separation process, a weak chemical reaction, by which certain components of a gas are condensed in an absorption liquid (lean oil) with which the gas is brought into contact. The absorption liquid with the absorbed components is called fat oil. The fat oil leaves the bottom of the absorber and is separated from the absorbed components in a following fractionator (Regenerator) whence the fresh lean oil is returned to the absorber. For example, Adip and Sulfinol Processes for H2S + CO2 removal.

ACCELERATOR
1.A substance that hastens a reaction, usually by acting as a catalyst, as in the vulcanization of rubber.

2.Any of several automobile attachments for increasing the speed at will, especially a foot-operated throttle.

ACCUMULATOR
A vessel for the temporary storage of a gas or liquid; usually used for collecting sufficient material for a continuous charge to some refining process.

ACETYLENE C2H2
A highly unsaturated hydrocarbon gas usually made by the action of water on calcium carbide and by pyrolysis of natural gas. It is largely used in industry for cutting and welding metals. Several important intermediates have been synthesised from acetylene but a cheaper route via ethylene has now been developed for many of them.

ACID
A member of an important and fundamental category of chemical substances characterised by having an available reactive hydrogen and requiring an alkali to neutralise them. Acid solutions usually have a sour, biting and tart taste, like vinegar.

ADDITIVE
A substance added to a product in order to improve its properties.

ADIP
Shell trade name for aqueous DIPA solution.

ADIP TREATING
A process for removal of hydrogen sulphide from hydrocarbon gases and LPG by a specific regenerable solvent.
Carbon dioxide and, to a certain extent, carbonyl sulphide can be removed at the same time. The solvent employed is an aqueous DIPA solution.

ADSORPTION PROCESS
A fractionation process based on the fact that certain highly porous materials preferentially adsorb certain types of molecules on their surface, e.g. PSA units.

AEROBIC
Existing in the presence of oxygen.

AEROMETER
An instrument for ascertaining the weight or density of air or other gases.

AGGREGATE
As applied to non-bituminous materials, the inert material, such as sand, gravel, or broken stone, with which cementing material is mixed to form a mortar or concrete.

AIR-BLOWN ASPHALT
Asphalt produced by blowing air through residual oils or similar mineral oil products at moderately elevated temperatures.

AIR HEAT EXCHANGER
A heat exchanger in which air is used as the cooling medium.

AIR SWEETENING
In this process sour gasoline fractions are sweetened by dissolving air in the hydrocarbon phase followed by contacting with a strong NaOH aqueous solution. The reaction products formed are disulphides which dissolve in the sweetened gasoline and water remaining in the aqueous phase.

ALCOHOLS
A class of organic compounds containing oxygen (as a hydroxyl), of which ethyl alcohol (the alcohol of potable spirits and wines) is the best known. They can react with acids to form esters. They are largely used as solvents.

ALGAE
Plants of the group comprising practically all seaweed’s and allied freshwater or nonaquatic forms, such as pond scum’s, stoneworts, etc.

ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS
Hydrocarbons in which the carbon atoms are arranged in open chains, which may be branched. The term includes paraffins and olefins and provides a distinction from aromatics and naphthenes which have at least some of their carbon atoms arranged in closed rings.

ALKALI
In chemistry, any substance having marked basic properties. In its restricted and common sense, the term is applied only to hydroxides of ammonium, lithium, potassium, and sodium. They are soluble in water, they have the power of neutralising acids and forming salts with them and of turning red litmus blue. In a more general sense, the term is also applied to the hydroxides of the so-called alkaline earth metals - barium, calcium, and strontium.

ALKALI TEST
A test to determine the presence or absence of free alkali in finished oils after chemical purification.

ALKALINE
Having the properties of an alkali; opposite to acidic.

ALKALINITY
The amount of free alkali in any substance.

ALKYLATION
A reaction in which a straight-chain or branched-chain hydrocarbons group, which is called an alkyl group or radical, is united with either an aromatic molecule or a branched-chain hydrocarbon. Used for detergent or petroleum manufacture. Usually catalysed by Hydrofluoric or Sulphuric acid.

ALLOY
A substance composed of two or more metals, or of a metal and a nonmetal, intimately united, usually by being fused together and dissolved in each other when molten.

AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE
An association incorporated in the United States, having as its object the study of the arts and sciences connected with the petroleum industry in all its branches and the fostering of foreign and domestic trade in American petroleum products.

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS
An association incorporated in the United States for promoting knowledge of the properties of engineering materials and for standardising specifications and methods of testing.

AMINE
Hydrocarbon with attached Ammonia group having absorbent properties, making it useful in treatment processes (ADIP, SULFINOL).

AMMONIA (NH3)
Ammonia is manufactured by the direct combination of hydrogen and nitrogen under pressure over a catalyst. Anhydrous ammonia is mainly used for the manufacture of nitrogenous fertilisers, but is used at NZRC for pH control in various processes. A colourless, gaseous compound, NH3 is of extremely pungent smell and taste and is very soluble in water.

ANAEROBIC
Existing in an oxygen free condition.

ANALYSIS
The process of determining the composition of a substance by chemical or physical methods.

ANHYDROUS
Free of water.

ANILINE POINT
The minimum temperature for complete miscibility of equal volumes of the chemical aniline and a petroleum product. In conjunction with API gravity the aniline point may be used to calculate the net heat of combustion of aviation fuels or the diesel index of diesel fuels. The lower temperature at which an oil product is completely miscible with aniline in a 1:1 volumetric ratio.

ANNEALING
Heating and slowly cooling to increase the ductility or remove internal stresses, as of metal or glass.

ANTIFOAM AGENT
An additive used for controlling foam. Antifoam agents are used in some lubricating oils. At PIM, used UCON or AMEREL

ANTI KNOCK
An adjective signifying resistance to detonation (pinking) in spark ignited internal combustion engines. Anti knock value is measured in terms of octane number of gasoline engines and of cetane number for diesel fuels.
ANTI KNOCK AGENT
A chemical compound such as tetramethyl lead which, when added in small amounts to the fuel charge of an internal combustion engine, tends to lessen knocking.

ANTIOXIDANT
A chemical added to gasoline, lubricating oil, etc. to inhibit oxidation.


ANTI STATIC ADDITIVE
An additive for reducing static properties, notably in Kerosene.

API GRAVITY
In the USA an arbitrary scale known as the API degree is used for reporting the gravity of a petroleum product. The degree API is related to the specific gravity scale (15°C/15°C) by the formula:

141.5
Degree API = Sp. Gr. 15°C/15?C 131.5

AROMATIC BLEND
A mixture made by the addition of a component or stock essentially aromatic in nature to impart to the mixture some property of the aromatic.

AROMATICS
A group of hydrocarbons characterised by their having at least one ring structure of six carbon atoms, each of the latter having one valency outside the ring. If these valencies are occupied by hydrogen atoms, hydrocarbon radicals, or inorganic groups one speaks of condensed aromatics. These hydrocarbons are called aromatics because many of their derivatives have an aromatic odour. They are of relatively high specific gravity and possess good solvent properties. Certain aromatics have valuable anti knock characteristics. Typical aromatics are: benzene, toluene, xylene, phenol (all mono aromatics) and naphthalene (a di aromatic). Aromatics can cause smoke and freeze point problems in Kerosene.

ASH
The solid residue left when combustible material is thoroughly burned.

ASH CONTENT
The percent by weight of residue left after combustion of a sample of a fuel oil or other petroleum oil.

ASPHALT
This term may have several meanings:

1.It refers to a mixture of bitumen and mineral aggregate, as prepared for the construction of roads or for other purposes.

2.In the United States it refers to the product which is known as bitumen elsewhere. Black to dark brown solid or semisolid cementitious material which gradually liquefies when heated and in which the predominating constituents are bitumens. These occur in the solid or semisolid form in nature: are obtainable by refining petroleum; or are combinations with one another or with petroleum or derivatives thereof.

ASPHALTENES
Polyaromatic constituents of asphaltic bitumen characterised by being insoluble in aromatic free low boiling petroleum spirit, but soluble in carbon disulphide.
ASPHALTIC BASE CRUDE OILS
Crude oils which contain little or no paraffin wax but usually contain asphaltic matter. Now often referred to as naphthene base crude oils.

ASPHALTIC BITUMEN
The full name for bitumen adopted by the Permanent International Association of Road Congresses.

ASPIRATOR
An apparatus which serves to create a partial vacuum through pumping a jet of water, steam, or some other fluid or gas past an orifice opening out of the chamber in which the vacuum is to be produced.

ASSOCIATED NATURAL GAS
Natural gas associated with oil accumulations by being dissolved in the oil under the reservoir temperatures and pressures (solution gas) and often also be forming a gas cap of free gas above the oil (gas cap gas).

ASTM DISTILLATION
Any distillation made in accordance with an ASTM distillation procedure; and, especially, a distillation test made on such products as gasoline and kerosene to determine the initial and final boiling points and the boiling range.

ASTM GUM TEST
1.An analytical method for determining the amount of existing gum in a gasoline by evaporating a sample from a glass dish on an elevated temperature bath with the aid of circulating air.

2.Any gum test carried out in accordance with an ASTM gum test procedure.

ASTM MELTING POINT
The temperature at which wax first shows a minimum rate of temperature change, also known as the English melting point.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
1.The pressure of air.

2.More specifically, the pressure of the air at sea level.

3.As a standard, the pressure at which the mercury barometer stands at 760mm, or 30in. (equivalent to approx. 14.7 psi).

ATOM
The smallest complete particle of an element which can be obtained, yet retain all physical and chemical properties of the element. According to present theory, the atom consists of a nucleus of neutrons and positively charged protons, surrounded by negatively charged particles called electrons.

ATOMISE\
To divide a liquid into extremely minute droplets, either by impact with a jet of steam or compressed air, or by passing through some mechanical device.

ATTEMPERATOR\
Same as Desuperheater,you can see in the desuperheater glossary (me2d will post it later) :)

ATTRITION\
The act of wearing out by rubbing or grinding, or the state of being so worn or ground. Granular catalysts or absorbents may suffer such attrition as a result of movement.

AUTO IGNITION POINT
The temperature at which the vapour given off by a sample will ignite in air without any ignition source.

AVERAGE BOILING POINT
Unless otherwise indicated, the sum of the ASTM distillation temperatures in steps of 10C from the 10 percent point to the 90 percent point, inclusive, divided by 9. Sometimes half the initial and half the maximum distillation temperatures are also added, and the sum then divided by 10.

AVGAS
High octane aviation gasoline for piston type engine.

AVIATION GASOLINE
Any of the special grades of gasoline suitable for use in certain aeroplane engines.

AVTAG
Wide range aviation turbine fuel, gasoline type, about identical to the JP 4 type fuel.

AVTUR
Kerosene type aviation turbine fuel, (Jet A1).

AZEOTROPE
Two (or more) components are said to form an azeotrope if there is a mixture of those components which has no boiling range but whose boiling point and dew point are the same.

AZEOTROPIC DISTILLATION
A distillation process characterised by the fact that the relative position of the components boiling points is influenced by the addition of a compound which selectively forms an azeotrope with one or a group of the components. The added compound is called the azeotrope former. E.g. furfural, used in the extraction of aromatics, forms an azeotrope with water.

Mari belajar:

ARTIKEL KOMPUTER


APPLICATION: software that was used to carry out the certain tasks, as carrying out the calculation of accountancy, processed words (wrote the letter, the agreement, etc.. ), or drew (the work was graphic).

ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange. The standard code that was used as the representation of text in the computer or to change mutual texts between the computer of one with the other computer. ASCII consisted of 255 codes that became the representation of all the texts of the character and several non-printing (control) characters.

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE: the programming language of the computer low-level. Assembly language interacted directly with computer hardware.

BASIC: Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. The programming language high-level. During 1964, John Kemeney and Thomas Kurtz drafted BASIC as the programming language that was easy to be studied. Because of his simplicity, BASIC fast was accepted as the programming language for the microcomputer.

BENCHMARK TEST: a series of test that was carried out in the system or computer software unutk measured his performance compared with the system or other similar software.

BIOS: Basic Input-Output System. Part of the certain operation system, like CP/M. and the CARTON that consist of drivers and other software that was drafted to manage peripheral equipment, like the monitor, the disk drive, and printer.

BIT: the abbreviation from “binary digit”. The smallest information unit that could be kept the computer. Bit could take the form of the value 1 or 0. Eight bit be the same as one byte.

BUG: the programming error that could cause a program or the functioning system not truly or crash (could not be used).

BUNDLE: the practice of the sale of the application and the computer simultaneously in a promotion effort. The bus: the channel that was used to distribute the data to a computer. The bus was one set of electric or electronic relations between the microprocessor and other hardware, like the disk drive, the plank logik, etc..

BYTE: the measurement of the computer memory or the disk capacity. One byte was the same as eight bits and could keep one ASCII character, that could take the form of the figure, the letter, or the punctuation mark.

CD-ROM: Compact Disk read-Only Memory. The storage system of optics that could record information permanently to some of Compact Disk (very much resembled the disk that was used for music), then presented him in the computer screen.

CGA: Color Graphics Adapter. The standard of the coloured screen that was introduced by IBM in 1981. The plank of the CGA circuit enabled the monitor to put forward the screen of four colours 320 X 200 pixel. In 1984, EGA (the standard of the higher resolution) replaced the CGA standard.

CHIP: the name was unofficial to integrated circuit. The example: saw microprocessor.

COBOL: Common Business-Oriented Language. The programming language high-level that was drafted for the application of the business. COBOL became the language that often was used to program the application for mainframes since the 1960 's.

CP/M.: Control Program/Microcomputer. One of the first systems of the microcomputer operation.

The DISK: also was mentioned diskette; the media penyimpan magnetic that was most usual was used for the microcomputer. “Floppy Disk” could berdiameter 5 or 3. The application program was packed and sold in the diskette, and the user kept the data in the diskette.
The DRIVE DISK: the Implement to call information from or recorded information to the disk. The computer could have one disk drive or more. The disk drive also could be installed as peripheral equipment.

The CARTON: the Disk of Operating-System. The name that usually is used to refer to Ms-DOS (the Microsoft product) or PC-DOS (the IBM adaptation to Ms-DOS). The CARTON became the widest operation system was used for the IBM computer and compatible him.

EGA: Enchanced Graphics Adapter. The standard tampilan beresolusi higher was compared by CGA. Resolusi EGA was 640 X 350 in mode 16 colours. In 1987, the EGA standard was replaced by VGA.

FORTRAN: FORmula TRANslation. The programming language that was developed in 1956 by John Backus in IBM, especially being used to handle the scientific and mathematical formula.

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